Budayri, the barber of Damascus kept a written record of what went on in his town from 1741-1762. He noted corrupt governors, high prices, unruly military and a decline in public moraility. One Arab family, the Azyms ruled Damascus from 1724-1783 and abused power to enrich itself. The barber held As'ad Pasha al-Azym, the family leader ruling in his time, responsible for plundering state funds. The army had become a rabble, who attacked and even killed the residents of Damascus.
Budayri also blamed high food prices on Azym, who as a landholder, would create artificial grain shortages to maximise profits. Azym's palace was a testament to his greed. The Sunni Islamic values that held the state together were being neglected as shown by the proliferation of prostitutes in the city. Unable to control the prostitutes, Azym taxed them instead.
By the middle of the 18th C Ottoman rule extended from Istanbul to Algiers. Arabs paid tax to the sultan's agents. The mid 18th C saw formerly non-socially mobile Muslims rising through the ranks to the title of 'pasha'. Local leaders diminished Ottoman influence by diverting taxes to local military and local building projects and as the phenomenon spread it threatened the integrity of the Ottoman Empire.
The second half of the 18th C saw many local leaders rebel against Istanbul's rule. Istanbul was too preoccupied with challenges from Vienna and Moscow to be concerned by distant Arab rebellions. The Habsburgs defeated the Ottomans in 1699 and were awarded Hungary, Poland and parts of Transylvania while Peter the Great was pressing in the Black Sea and parts of the Caucasus.
Before oil, cotton put the Eastern Mediterranean on the map. European demand dates to the 17th C with UK using US cotton while the French used Ottoman. The Industrial Revolution saw French demand rise from 2m kg in 1700 to 11m kg in 1789 and the Galilee dynast producing the best cotton in Northern Palestine became rich enough to challenge Ottoman rule in Syria. Budyari the barber notes that attempts to destroy Zahir the leader of the dynast (who took taxes meant for the annual pilgrimage caravan to Mecca) were unsuccessful. Zahir expanded his territory and bullied the French into high cotton prices. When the Ottomans brought together his many enemies against him, Zahir was forced to join forces with the ruling Mamluk in Cairo - Ali Bey.
Ali Bey was ruthless and trusted only slaves he had trained himself. He wanted to restore the Mamluk Empire. The Ottomans were fighting Russia and unable to stop him.Unfortunately a pious general refused Ali Bey's orders to attack Damascus during the pilgrimage season. The rebel campaign thus came to a halt for the rest of winter 1770-1771.
Ali Bey had better luck second time round and 'Abu al-Dhubab' or 'the father of gold' drove the Ottoman governor of Damascus out in June. The Mamluks now controlled Egypt, Hijaz and Damascus, nearly fulfilling Ali Bey's dream of reconstructing the Mamluk Empire.
Unfortunately, the same pious general, Isma'il Bey persuaded Abu al-Dhubab to leave Damascus and take his army back to Egypt. Isma'il cleverly ignited Abu al-Dhubab's ambition by claiming that since Ali Bey had turned his back on Islam by consorting with the Russians, any good Muslim could kill him and claim his harem and his wealth.
Ali Bey fled Egypt and Abu al-Dhubab sought to be Ottoman governor of Egypt. Zahir a-Umar had lost his best ally and was eventually assinated. The challenge most serious challenge to 250 years of Ottoman rule over the Arab world had been withstood.
Infighting amongst Mamluk leaders left Egypt in a state of instability for the rest of the 18th C.
Budayri also blamed high food prices on Azym, who as a landholder, would create artificial grain shortages to maximise profits. Azym's palace was a testament to his greed. The Sunni Islamic values that held the state together were being neglected as shown by the proliferation of prostitutes in the city. Unable to control the prostitutes, Azym taxed them instead.
By the middle of the 18th C Ottoman rule extended from Istanbul to Algiers. Arabs paid tax to the sultan's agents. The mid 18th C saw formerly non-socially mobile Muslims rising through the ranks to the title of 'pasha'. Local leaders diminished Ottoman influence by diverting taxes to local military and local building projects and as the phenomenon spread it threatened the integrity of the Ottoman Empire.
The second half of the 18th C saw many local leaders rebel against Istanbul's rule. Istanbul was too preoccupied with challenges from Vienna and Moscow to be concerned by distant Arab rebellions. The Habsburgs defeated the Ottomans in 1699 and were awarded Hungary, Poland and parts of Transylvania while Peter the Great was pressing in the Black Sea and parts of the Caucasus.
Before oil, cotton put the Eastern Mediterranean on the map. European demand dates to the 17th C with UK using US cotton while the French used Ottoman. The Industrial Revolution saw French demand rise from 2m kg in 1700 to 11m kg in 1789 and the Galilee dynast producing the best cotton in Northern Palestine became rich enough to challenge Ottoman rule in Syria. Budyari the barber notes that attempts to destroy Zahir the leader of the dynast (who took taxes meant for the annual pilgrimage caravan to Mecca) were unsuccessful. Zahir expanded his territory and bullied the French into high cotton prices. When the Ottomans brought together his many enemies against him, Zahir was forced to join forces with the ruling Mamluk in Cairo - Ali Bey.
Ali Bey was ruthless and trusted only slaves he had trained himself. He wanted to restore the Mamluk Empire. The Ottomans were fighting Russia and unable to stop him.Unfortunately a pious general refused Ali Bey's orders to attack Damascus during the pilgrimage season. The rebel campaign thus came to a halt for the rest of winter 1770-1771.
Ali Bey had better luck second time round and 'Abu al-Dhubab' or 'the father of gold' drove the Ottoman governor of Damascus out in June. The Mamluks now controlled Egypt, Hijaz and Damascus, nearly fulfilling Ali Bey's dream of reconstructing the Mamluk Empire.
Unfortunately, the same pious general, Isma'il Bey persuaded Abu al-Dhubab to leave Damascus and take his army back to Egypt. Isma'il cleverly ignited Abu al-Dhubab's ambition by claiming that since Ali Bey had turned his back on Islam by consorting with the Russians, any good Muslim could kill him and claim his harem and his wealth.
Ali Bey fled Egypt and Abu al-Dhubab sought to be Ottoman governor of Egypt. Zahir a-Umar had lost his best ally and was eventually assinated. The challenge most serious challenge to 250 years of Ottoman rule over the Arab world had been withstood.
Infighting amongst Mamluk leaders left Egypt in a state of instability for the rest of the 18th C.
No comments:
Post a Comment