France was getting worryingly cosy with Egypt and British concerns over the land/sea route to India were growing around 1827. Not wishing to get in to any more expensive wars with the French, maintaining the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire seemed like a better way of preserving the peace. The British decided that supporting Greek claims for greater autonomy was the best solution, as neither the Ottomans nor Egypt were capable of retaining Greece on their own and it was already a drain on their resources.
On 27 October, 1827, the British and French allied fleet sank 78 Ottoman and Egyptian ships and killed over 1,000 Ottoman and Egyptian men. The Kingdom of Greece was established by France, Russia and Britain in London, May 1832. Muhammad 'Ali no longer sought Sultan Mahmud's favour after the defeat (which he blamed the sultan for) and would pursue his own objectives at the sultan's expense.
Muhammad 'Ali had had his eye on Syria since 1811 and the Porte reneged on irs promise to make him Governor in return for defending Greece against the allied fleet. In 1832 Muhammad lay siege to the unassailable city of Acre amidst terrible scenes of slaughter and the constant bellow of deafening artillery. It took six months to blast through the walls of the fortress of Acre and once breached the invasion was over quickly. Only 350 defenders survived to great the invaders.
Ibrahim Pasha then headed for Damascus. 10,000 civilians were press-ganged to defend the city, and knowing civilians would run at the first shot, the Egyptians fired over their heads and so it happened.
Ibrahim Pasha forbade looting and charged his army to respect the townspeople. Ibrahim Pasha then mearched 16,000 men, 43 cannons and 3,000 transport camels towards Homs. On 8 July, the Egyptians engaged the Ottoman army for the first time and gained a decisive victory. One day after the battle Ibrahim Pash marched on Aleppo to complete his conquest of Syria. The city surrender without resisting the Egyptian army. There was a another battle with the remainder of the Ottoman army which, although out-numbered, Ibrahim Pasha's forces won. The Egyptians made it to the port of Adana where Egyptian ships could resupply his exhausted army. It is impossible to imagine now the stamina, strength and valour of those fighting men.
On hearing of his son's victories, Muhammad 'Ali sought to validate his acquisitions. The Ottomans mobilized an army of 80,000 men to drive the Egyptians back where they came from. Ibrahim Pasha marched to the Anatolian Plateau to meet the Ottomans. Used to deserts, the snow and freezing temperatures put the Egyptians at a disadvantage. Even so, the unwilling conscripts of the Egyptian army were the more disciplined army and they secured total victory over the Ottoman troops in the Battle of Konya (21 December, 1832). As a result, the sultan capitulated to most of Muhammad 'Ali's demands.
In the space of a few years, Muhammad 'Ali had secured an empire to rival the Ottomans.
However, taxation and conscription and cultural change made the Syrians despise Egyptian rule. Further fighting followed when Europe supported the Turks after Muhammad 'Ali announced his intention to secede Syria from Ottoman rule, but the German trained Nizami were routed by Ibrahim Pasha's supposedly exhausted 'peasant army' of conscripts near Aleppo on 24 June, 1839. The Sultan died and was replaced by his adolescent son so admiral Ahmed Fevzi Pasha sailed across the Mediterranean to join Mumhammad 'Ali to stop his fleet falling into Russian hands.
Europe was worried the power vacuum would allow the Russians to seize the Bosporus and Dardanelles allowing its fleet access to the Mediterranean. The British and Austrians told Muhammad 'Ali to leave Syria in return for Damascus but he refused, counting on French support. Following a naval victory for the Europeans, Ibrahim Pasha withdrew from Syria to Egypt overland in January 1841.
After the the British Prie Minister Lord Palmerston effectively arranged four decades of protection against European designs on Ottoman territory in a secret appendix to the London Convention of 1940.
After nearly 40 years in power Egyptian coinage still bore the head of the Sultan. Muhammad 'Ali and his son Ibrahim Pasha were both dead by 1850 and Muhammad 'Ali's grandson Abbas came to power.
Challenges to their Empire made the Ottomans seek outside help from Europe but Europe had already become the dominant world power.
On 27 October, 1827, the British and French allied fleet sank 78 Ottoman and Egyptian ships and killed over 1,000 Ottoman and Egyptian men. The Kingdom of Greece was established by France, Russia and Britain in London, May 1832. Muhammad 'Ali no longer sought Sultan Mahmud's favour after the defeat (which he blamed the sultan for) and would pursue his own objectives at the sultan's expense.
Muhammad 'Ali had had his eye on Syria since 1811 and the Porte reneged on irs promise to make him Governor in return for defending Greece against the allied fleet. In 1832 Muhammad lay siege to the unassailable city of Acre amidst terrible scenes of slaughter and the constant bellow of deafening artillery. It took six months to blast through the walls of the fortress of Acre and once breached the invasion was over quickly. Only 350 defenders survived to great the invaders.
Ibrahim Pasha then headed for Damascus. 10,000 civilians were press-ganged to defend the city, and knowing civilians would run at the first shot, the Egyptians fired over their heads and so it happened.
Ibrahim Pasha forbade looting and charged his army to respect the townspeople. Ibrahim Pasha then mearched 16,000 men, 43 cannons and 3,000 transport camels towards Homs. On 8 July, the Egyptians engaged the Ottoman army for the first time and gained a decisive victory. One day after the battle Ibrahim Pash marched on Aleppo to complete his conquest of Syria. The city surrender without resisting the Egyptian army. There was a another battle with the remainder of the Ottoman army which, although out-numbered, Ibrahim Pasha's forces won. The Egyptians made it to the port of Adana where Egyptian ships could resupply his exhausted army. It is impossible to imagine now the stamina, strength and valour of those fighting men.
On hearing of his son's victories, Muhammad 'Ali sought to validate his acquisitions. The Ottomans mobilized an army of 80,000 men to drive the Egyptians back where they came from. Ibrahim Pasha marched to the Anatolian Plateau to meet the Ottomans. Used to deserts, the snow and freezing temperatures put the Egyptians at a disadvantage. Even so, the unwilling conscripts of the Egyptian army were the more disciplined army and they secured total victory over the Ottoman troops in the Battle of Konya (21 December, 1832). As a result, the sultan capitulated to most of Muhammad 'Ali's demands.
 |
| The Anatolian Plateau as it is today. |
However, taxation and conscription and cultural change made the Syrians despise Egyptian rule. Further fighting followed when Europe supported the Turks after Muhammad 'Ali announced his intention to secede Syria from Ottoman rule, but the German trained Nizami were routed by Ibrahim Pasha's supposedly exhausted 'peasant army' of conscripts near Aleppo on 24 June, 1839. The Sultan died and was replaced by his adolescent son so admiral Ahmed Fevzi Pasha sailed across the Mediterranean to join Mumhammad 'Ali to stop his fleet falling into Russian hands.
Europe was worried the power vacuum would allow the Russians to seize the Bosporus and Dardanelles allowing its fleet access to the Mediterranean. The British and Austrians told Muhammad 'Ali to leave Syria in return for Damascus but he refused, counting on French support. Following a naval victory for the Europeans, Ibrahim Pasha withdrew from Syria to Egypt overland in January 1841.
After the the British Prie Minister Lord Palmerston effectively arranged four decades of protection against European designs on Ottoman territory in a secret appendix to the London Convention of 1940.
After nearly 40 years in power Egyptian coinage still bore the head of the Sultan. Muhammad 'Ali and his son Ibrahim Pasha were both dead by 1850 and Muhammad 'Ali's grandson Abbas came to power.
Challenges to their Empire made the Ottomans seek outside help from Europe but Europe had already become the dominant world power.
No comments:
Post a Comment